Gender

Introduction
Gender relations in Yemen are characterised by religious, cultural, social, and political realities that are not only complex, but also vary in the north and south of the country, as well as in urban and rural locations. Historically, women in Yemen have always been able to exercise little power in society. The situation of women and girls in Yemen is particularly worsening as the conflict intensifies. Women form a highly marginalised group and are largely excluded from the political decision-making process. Due to profound socio-cultural and economic inequality, the conflict affects men, boys, women and girls in different ways. Men are primarily victims of the direct armed conflict, whereas women are frequently exposed to gender based violence [1]. The lack of access to health and sanitation lead to a high maternal mortality rate. The illiteracy rate in Yemen is one of the highest in the world, affecting women more than any other group [2]. 

Concepts of masculinity and femininity are fully shaped by a conservative, patriarchal society, in which men have extensive control over a woman´s life. This does not mean that only women suffer under these conditions, men also are victims of toxic masculinities, forcing them to act a certain way. Violent acts such as hostage-taking, forced marriage, torture, and murder are common practice, while cultural constraints inhibit women from seeking governmental help. Men can divorce their wives without their consent, which is one example of how women are treated as property and of the inequality they have to endure [3]. 

Keywords: inequality, education, health, econmics, violence 

Education 

Structural inequalities in Yemen complicate women´s and girls´ access to basic services, such as education, which results in low literacy rates. According to the Human Development Index (HDI), the average years of schooling for Yemeni girls is 1.9 years, and for boys 4.4 years. Although both figures are low, boys in Yemen receive more than twice as much schooling as girls [4]. The proportion of girls to have received school education in rural areas is the lowest, where 60% are illiterate, while 24% of women in urban areas are illiterate [5] . 

Health [6]

Answer the following questions, try to make guesses. 

Economics

The conflict in Yemen has significantly diminished employment opportunities for men and women.[7]Yet, the war affected a larger proportion of women with a decline of male employment by 11 %  while female employment fell by 28 %.[8] Today the underrepresentation in the labor market is one of the most important sources of inequality between men and women. Yemen’s tribal and patriarchal social norms are a key factor contributing to low female labor force participation.[9]Participating in labor markets is important for economic empowerment of women and for building diverse, inclusive and innovative organisations. [10]According to the 2021 Gender Gap Report only 6.3 % of women participated in the labor force.[11] However, the war has also opened up new professions to women.[12] With men dead, fighting or unemployed, financial necessity has led a growing number of women to start new businesses, often home-based like producing food for sale or selling clothes and accessories online through social media.[13] Nonetheless, Yemeni women make 93 % less money than men and the presence of Islamist groups has led to women losing their jobs.[14] Moreover, the majority of female work is without pay in the informal sector, on farms, or in family enterprises.[9] In the face of poverty and food insecurity this makes women even more vulnerable.[15]

Figure 3: Type of Work.

Figure 4: Gender Disparities in Labour Market Outcomes.

Violence 

Outlook and Conclusion

Even though gender is not a core conflict driver, women are essential to solving the conflict in Yemen. While women are mostly excluded from the official peace building process they are engaged in a broad range of activities that contribute to social cohesion and informal peace building in their communities[16]. Therefore, women’s voices in political negotiations are vital to help a smooth political transition, sustainable peace and in establishing common ground between the parties of the conflict [17]. Women need more opportunities to participate in decision-making and peace making to create a more equal and stable post-war Yemeni society.

If you want to learn more about other conflict drivers in Yemen you should have a look at the next module which explains how the North-South divide plays into the conflict.